Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) did not acknowledge at every opportunity an intellectual debt towards Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) because he claimed to have come up himself with the theory of the unconscious (instincts) as a driving force.
However, anyone familiar with Freud’s and Schopenhauer’s ideas cannot possibly fail to notice the close similarity between Freud’s theory of the unconscious and Schopenhauer’s ideas, in particular, the theory of the will (“life force”).
Let us examine in detail how Freud’s work relies on a views of human life very similar to Schopenhauer’s.
Schopenhauer and Freud on narcissism
Freud published in 1914 his essay “On narcissism” in which he argues that a certain level of self-respect is necessary for a healthy personality. The problem arises when the individual is pushing his desires (conscious or unconscious) beyond what is socially acceptable.
Schopenhauer’s influence is already visible at this stage. In “The world as will and representation” (1818), Schopenhauer had pointed out that the will (“life force” or “primary energy”) is often prompting humans to foolish behaviour.
Narcissism is just one example of the aberrant influence of the will, although Schopenhauer did not pick up this clue. He regarded the will as a strong, irrational force that disrupts how people behave, but did not go into psychological details.
If one follows Schopenhauer’s logic, mental disturbance can be attributed to the dire influence of the will. Schopenhauer did mention emotional suffering but failed to categorize the mental distortions (stress, anxiety, panic, narcissism, and others).
As time goes by, Freud’s publications resemble more closely to Schopenhauer’s theory of the will but not consistently. When Freud deviates from Schopenhauer’s philosophy, he comes up with ideas that make no sense.
Schopenhauer and Freud on the death instinct
Freud published the essay “Beyond the pleasure principle” in 1920. In this book, he argues that individuals are driven not only by a life instinct (similar to Schopenhauer’s theory of the will), but also by a death instinct.
By presenting this patently absurd idea, Freud had painted himself in a corner; the book contains illogical statements such as “the goal of all life is death.” While it is accurate to say that “the end of life is death,” it is obviously false to sustain that healthy living creatures long for suicide.
Schopenhauer would have found Freud’s arguments totally ridiculous. Freud is arguing that two opposite ideas are true at the same time. His alleged “death instinct” is contradicting his life instinct. It’s nonsense and doesn’t deserve further comment.
Schopenhauer and Freud on the unconscious
Freud came back to Schopenhauer’s framework in his book “The ego and the id” (1923), where he outlines the three areas or elements in the human mind, namely, the id (the instincts or the unconscious), the ego (the conscious) and the superego (the social norms or constraints).
In this book, Freud explains how the unconscious drives a large part of human decisions, and that the conscious should be regarded as a projection or elaboration of the unconscious.
Schopenhauer’s influence can be traced to the definition of the unconscious. Freud’s definition corresponds “the will” that Schopenhauer had defined one century earlier, in 1818, in his book “The world as will and representation.”
Schopenhauer and Freud on social tension
The similarities grow larger in Freud’s ensuring book, which carries the title “Civilization and its discontents” (1830). Freud addresses the tension between a person’s desires (driven by the unconscious to a great extent) and social norms.
Schopenhauer had portrayed that tension in essays compiled and published in 1851 as “Parerga and Paralipomena.” While Freud fails to offer solutions to the tension, Schopenhauer had proposed an array of solid strategies to counter the influence of the will and increase individual happiness.
Schopenhauer and Freud on mental disturbance
In Freud’s lectures collection published in 1917 as “General introduction to psychoanalysis,” the three-part structure of the human mind is presented accompanied by examples of clinical practice.
According to Freud, relief from mental disturbance requires an extended analysis (“psychoanalysis”) of the patients hidden memories to identify ongoing conflicts between the id, the ego, and the superego. In practice, Freud’s examples focus mostly on the id or unconscious mind.
Schopenhauer had conceived the original theory of the will, especially underlining the influence of the will (“life force”) on human behaviour. His analysis had not aimed at curing mental disturbance but at preventing it and increasing one’s happiness.
Chances are that Schopenhauer would have viewed Freud’s dream interpretation with scepticism. The same could be said about Freud’s theory on sexual deviance, the Oedipus complex, and psychological defence mechanisms. Aren’t they all caused by the will, which prompts humans into harmful behaviour?
Schopenhauer and Freud on the nature of violence
Freud expanded the scope of his research in 1932 by writing an essay titled “Why War?” He blamed aggressive instincts for the outbreak of wars but his explanations are rather convoluted if compared with Schopenhauer’s theory of the will.
In Freud’s book, a long text is needed to explain how sexual instincts can turn into physical aggression. Schopenhauer gave easier explanations by portraying the will as irrational. Due to its lack of perspective and risk assessment, the will can prompt individuals to foolish behaviour, which may entail violence.
Schopenhauer and Freud on the problem of anxiety
Lastly, Freud published in 1926 “The problem of anxiety.” He defines anxiety as a deep feeling of helplessness in the face of danger. Freud is consistent with his three-part theory of the mind by attributing anxiety to helplessness in the unconscious, in the conscious, or in the superego.
His explanations are aligned with Schopenhauer’s analysis of the emotional suffering; according to Schopenhauer, anxiety and stress arise when individuals fear failure in achieving the goals imposed by the will, namely, the goals of survival, short-term pleasure, and reproduction.
Freud’s explanations revolve around his three-part structure of the human mind, but once again, fail to deliver solutions. If you want reduce anxiety and stress, you may be well advised to study Schopenhauer’s strategies (e.g., artistic contemplation, risk reduction, margins of safety, prudence and foresight).
If you are interested in applying rational ideas to your life in today’s context, I recommend you my book “Consistency: The key to permanent stress relief.”
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