The theory the will constitutes the key element in all books by Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) and the most distinctive aspect of his philosophy. Schopenhauer regarded “the Will” as the fundamental force in nature, a force that drives animal and human existence.
Schopenhauer is the most important thinker in the decades after Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), but rejected many of Kant’s ideas. Schopenhauer admired Kant, but disagreed with his cold view of the universe.
Kant regarded reason and morality as the drivers of history, but had failed to explain the high levels of irrationality present in human society. He had theorized about universal values and ethics, but failed to explain chaos, conflict and war.
In contrast, Schopenhauer’s theory of the Will gives a solid explanation for irrational behaviour. Instead of theorizing that the world is guided by reason and ethics, Schopenhauer names “the Will” as the ultimate source of animal and human actions.
Schopenhauer’s definition of the will
According to Schopenhauer, the Will cares little for reason and morality. It is an irrational, blind force that drives animals and humans towards self-preservation and reproduction.
Does the Will have a purpose? To the extent that it does, its main goal is the perpetuation of life. However, Schopenhauer regards other goals as equally strong. He describes the Will as insatiable, as a constant source of new desires and cravings.
Schopenhauer’s theory of metaphysics consists of searching for manifestations of the Will in society. He sees the Will as an abstract force taking endless shapes and constantly changing direction.
The most obvious manifestation of the Will is the “Will to live,” which would be renamed “survival instinct” by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Schopenhauer regards it as a relentless and universal drive that pays little attention to social conventions.
Suffering and Schopenhauer’s theory of the will
By elevating the Will to prime driver of desires and actions, Schopenhauer is also blaming it for all stress and anxiety in the world. The Will, argues Schopenhauer, renders people restless, prompting them to pursue goals that are often unattainable. As a result, widespread frustration and dissatisfaction ensue.
Schopenhauer considers suffering as impossible to eradicate because striving for ever-higher goals is inherent in the human condition. For as long as we live, we want more possessions, a higher standard of living, and additional pleasures.
The ceaseless striving of the Will results in dissatisfaction, frustration and suffering, argues Schopenhauer. It is a fact that most human desires are going to remain unfulfilled because of the nature of reality.
Economists like Adam Smith (1723-1790) tend to formulate this principle by comparing human desires with resources. For instance, economists state that “human desires are unlimited, but resources are not.”
Nirvana and Schopenhauer’s theory of the will
Schopenhauer puts forward two methodologies for escaping the suffering generated by the Will. His first method consists of limiting one’s desires or ignoring them altogether. This idea is drawn from Buddhism, which promotes renunciation as the path to enlightenment and “nirvana” (peace of mind).
The second methodology proposed by Schopenhauer is art. It helps us reduce the stress from the Will because it offers us a temporary refuge from our desires and cravings. The aesthetic experience enables us to forget our problems and connect with abstract concepts and feelings.
Operas by Richard Wagner (1813-1883) such as “The Ring of the Nibelungs” and “Tristan and Isolde” provide the type of aesthetic experience described by Schopenhauer.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) adopted and expanded the aesthetic concept described by Schopenhauer. Nietzsche added motivational and educational elements which led him to regard ancient Greek tragedies as the archetype of sophisticated art.
Pessimism and Schopenhauer’s theory of the will
While Schopenhauer’s theory the will refers to the Will as a universal factor (survival, procreation, growth), Nietzsche gave it a very narrow meaning. His works focus almost exclusively on the “will to power” and only in human society.
Nietzsche’s definition of the Will is more optimistic than the one put forward by Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer had focused on defending oneself against stress and frustration. Nietzsche regarded the Will as a path to creativity and success.
For Nietzsche, the “Will to power” goes beyond the desires to survive and reproduce sexually. It also includes ambition, self-improvement, and creativity. Thanks to the Will to Power, argues Nietzsche, we seek to control and improve our lives.
While Schopenhauer had expressed certain appreciation for traditional morality (as a path to peace of mind), Nietzsche regarded it as an illegitimate tool to suppress the Will to power.
Nietzsche deviated from Schopenhauer’s theory of the will in a grand manner. His strong criticism of humility, modesty, and herd mentality goes against Schopenhauer’s calls for self- control and asceticism.
If you want to learn about applying Schopenhauer’s ideas of prudence in daily life, I recommend you my book “Thriving in difficult times.”
Related articles
Schopenhauer and the role of reason
Analysis of Schopenhauer’s views on the role of reason
Schopenhauer’s philosophy summary
The great merit of Schopenhauer’s theory of the will
Schopenhauer’s theory of the will compared to other philosophers