Few thinkers in history have developed integrated systems of philosophy. I view Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) as one of those few. The key of Schopenhauer’s philosophy is that all reality is governed by a cosmical force, which he calls “Will.”
According to Schopenhauer, Will is blind, irrational, eternal and all-powerful. It’s the prime force that drives all existence in the animal and human world in particular.
Schopenhauer claims to have built his philosophy on ideas put forward by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), but he did so only to a limited extent.
Kant’s knowledge theory is categorized as idealistic because of its distinction between the tangible world and “things in themselves.” While Kant had written hundreds of pages about “things in themselves,” Schopenhauer simply claimed to have identified the “Will” as the driving force in nature.
Buddhist influence on Schopenhauer’s philosophy
Schopenhauer claimed that everything we perceive is just a manifestation of a universal force called “Will.” The power of the Will is so strong, theorized Schopenhauer, that resistance is futile. He argued that the Will creates dissatisfaction because it drives humans constantly to pursue new goals.
One of Schopenhauer’s merits is that he had studied Eastern philosophies in depth, in particular Buddhism. Schopenhauer viewed the Buddhist concept of “nirvana” as the perfect recipe against the anxiety and frustration generated by the Will.
Like in Buddhism, Schopenhauer believed that self-imposed limitations can help reduce anxiety, stress and disappointments in life. By contenting yourself with less, you can keep distress at bay.
By becoming enlightened, you can reduce the influence of the Will in your life. By desiring less and doing less, you could achieve “nirvana” (peace of mind) like in Buddhism.
Schopenhauer and the world as representation
In his major work “The World as Will and Representation,” published in 1818, Schopenhauer argued that the Will presents itself in various ways, which he called “representations.”
Through observation and meditation, we can see the Will in its various shapes. Those constitute the externalization of the underlying Will. All we perceive through our senses are shapes (objectifications) that the Will has taken.
According to Schopenhauer, human cognition is also part of the manifestations of the Will. Our perceptions, opinions and understanding are also influenced by the Will. Since the Will is operating irrationally, it is no wonder that we sometimes find it difficult to assess the facts and make good decisions.
Schopenhauer’s description of the Will is reminiscent of the theory of the forms, or abstract ideas, developed by Plato (429-347 BC). Like Plato, Schopenhauer argued that we perceive the Will through intuitive, contemplative enlightenment, not by cool reasoning.
From this perspective, Schopenhauer regarded the world as composed of two distinct phenomena. On one hand, “the world as Will,” and on the other hand “the world as representation.”
The human mind, when educated and enlightened, can build a bridge between the two worlds. It can minimize the influence of the Will on one’s life, and make choices that lead to a higher emotional resilience.
The role of art in Schopenhauer’s philosophy
If the search for “nirvana” constitutes a first method for low stress, aesthetic contemplation constitutes a second method. In the works of Schopenhauer, music, sculpture and painting (and to a lower extent, architecture) are presented as valid remedies for escaping the world of representation into one of beauty.
Schopenhauer resorted to art for disengaging from the Will temporarily and relaxing from worldly pursuits. Art creations can convey the emotional powers of the Will without the stress inherent in its representations.
Music is the best art form for experiencing the Will without its drawbacks, argued Schopenhauer, precisely because music does not involve a visual representation.
Art does not create the stress and anxiety associated to the Will because aesthetic contemplation is “disinterested,” argued Schopenhauer. By “disinterested,” he meant that artworks are not linked to our individual desires and enables us to forget, for a while, the world’s wear and tear.
Pessimism in Schopenhauer’s philosophy
Schopenhauer’s emphasis on art as intellectual or emotional therapy matches his pessimistic view about happiness, success and personal victories; he viewed setbacks as statistically more likely than victories, and art as a refuge from the world’s stress and disappointments.
For Schopenhauer, human will is just an extension of the universal Will, but in humans, it becomes personalized. It leads to constant striving for satisfaction and fulfilment, which often will remain unsatisfied.
Like in Buddhism, Schopenhauer viewed human desires as the main cause of suffering. We are naturally insatiable, unable to stop pursuing new desires. As soon as one goal is achieved, we establish a new one, calling for further striving and stress.
The fact that most desires cannot be fulfilled in life leads to suffering. Objective expectations, said Schopenhauer, lead to a pessimistic outlook because most people cannot fulfil most of their desires most of the time. Anxiety and stress are pervasive.
Schopenhauer regarded the “will to live” in all animals and humans as a manifestation of the Will. The desire to live is the driving force behind self-preservation and procreation.
It’s only by recognizing our insatiable nature, Schopenhauer argued, that we can mitigate suffering through art enjoyment or though the self-limitation of our desires.
If you are interested in apply Schopenhauer’s ideas to daily life, I recommend you my books “Against all odds: How to achieve great victories in desperate times.”
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