Epictetus, a philosopher from the 1st century AD, provides excellent guidance for the daily practice of the ideas of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860). Schopenhauer was focused on the attainment of happiness, and Epictetus pursued tranquillity and virtue, but in practical terms, their ideas are very close.
Epictetus emphasized the distinction between internal and external events. Internal events comprise our thoughts, desires, and actions. External events comprise other people’s actions and all aspects of life beyond our control.
According to Epictetus, the keys tranquillity and virtue are accepting external events for what they are, and concentrating our efforts on internal events, that is, on our inner disposition.
Schopenhauer did not agree with this distinction. His theory of the will (“life force”) predicates that the will pushes living creatures into a relentless quest for survival, reproduction and pleasure, without considering costs, risks and consequences.
Emotions in Schopenhauer’s philosophy of life
The will affects both external factors and internal factors. It is going to drive other people’s action as much as it drives our own psychology and motivation. Epictetus’ distinction between external and internal events does not correlate with the sphere of influence of the will. According to Schopenhauer, the will is exerting continuous influence both internally and externally.
Epictetus sustained that our judgements about events, rather than the events themselves, shape our emotions. He advised people to discard exaggerated beliefs and grow more rational.
In contrast, Schopenhauer in his work “On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason” (1808) considered natural that negative emotions ensue after tangible setbacks. His later book “The world as will and representation” (1818) confirmed his realistic views.
Suffering is not purely psychological, stated Schopenhauer. It is a fact that people endure reversals and disappointments in life. Epictetus’ view of feelings as purely psychological events does not match everyday observations.
Schopenhauer’s philosophy of life compared with Epictetus’
Nonetheless, the recommendations given by Schopenhauer resemble very much those given by Epictetus. For instance, in the sayings inherited from Epictetus, we find the concept of “stoic reserve.”
“Stoic reserve” is defined by Epictetus as a person’s ability to endure hardship in a calm, dignified manner, that is, without complaining. You will find a similar concept in Schopenhauer’s essays “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851), but with a different terminology.
Epictetus called for turning challenges into opportunities for personal growth but Schopenhauer acknowledged that this isn’t always possible. If someone is suffering from terminal illness, I would find it insulting to categorize his situation as a chance for personal growth.
Leaving aside the aspects of personal growth, it is true that both Epictetus and Schopenhauer called for cultivating mental strength and resilience, risk avoidance, and stress reduction to the maximum extent.
Self-reliance in Schopenhauer’s philosophy of life
Schopenhauer would have accepted only partially Epictetus’ statement that “we cannot choose our external circumstances, but we can always choose how we respond to them.” The truth is that we can exert a vast influence on external circumstances and minimize the dire effects of the will.
Human beings aren’t defenceless plants, easily wiped out by a flood. We do not need to behave passively and fearfully. It is fine to be aware of our emotions, as Epictetus noted, but those should not be taken as excuses for immobility and defeatism.
While Epictetus sustained that people could become free by taking control of their thoughts, Schopenhauer was looking for real freedom from the negative influence of the will. It is great to become “as master of your own soul” (as recommended by Epictetus) but it’s even better to keep misery at bay.
Instead of seeking “freedom” by rejecting the world, giving up your dreams, and retreating into meaningless routines, it is far more effective to adopt Schopenhauer’s recommendations. I especially find it worthy to develop one’s self-reliance, margins of risk, and diversification.
Schopenhauer did something better than outlining his ideas and concepts: he put them into practice in his own life. He did his best to pursue his dreams of literary and academic success, but achieved much less than he wanted. Nonetheless, he led a happy life thanks to his self-discipline and his habits of artistic contemplation.
Setbacks in Schopenhauer’s philosophy of life
It is not true, as Epictetus had maintained, that humans only have control over their own minds. We also control many other factors. It’s up to us to grow aware of the risks presented by the will, avert those risks and establish adequate margins of safety.
In any case, Schopenhauer agreed with Epictetus that wise people don’t waste time complaining about what they lack, and prefer to spend their time enjoying what they do have.
It is impractical to feel disturbed by the injustices, setbacks, disasters and disappointments generated by the force. Instead, I encourage you to apply your energies to growing stronger and more self-reliant.
Learn to identify the influence of the will in everything that happens, accepting that the will plays a major role in the world and often prompts people to act against their own interests.
If you are interested in applying rational ideas to your own life, I recommend you my book titled “Against all odds: How to achieve great victories in desperate times.”