The key concepts in the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) connect it to Ancient Stoicism and existentialism. Let us pass review to those concepts, which Schopenhauer first outlined in “The world as will and representation,” a book that he published in 1818.
Schopenhauer built his philosophy around the theory of the will (“life force”). He viewed the will as the driver of all living creatures. It is a wild, irrational, eternal driver that prompts all creatures to secure their survival and reproduction, and to seek pleasure.
The problem with the will is that it doesn’t assess any long-term consequences. It pushes individuals relentlessly to pursue short-term goals without considering the cost and risks. If you fail to become self-aware and adopt countermeasures, the will is going to take control of your life.
Schopenhauer’s concept of the will is similar to the concept of fate in Ancient Stoicism. The writings of Seneca (4-65 AD) and Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD) present fate as irresistible, overwhelming and uncontrollable.
Schopenhauer’s concept of the will
In terms of metaphysics, the most importance concept from Schopenhauer’s books is the primacy position given to the will.
In his early book “On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason” (1814), Schopenhauer had argued that every event has a traceable cause. Subsequently, he acknowledged that the will has not because it is itself the underlying cause of all other phenomena.
The Ancient Stoics recommend leading a virtuous life as the best way to enjoy one’s time one earth. Virtue averts suffering and enables happiness, even if nobody has the power to extend his own life beyond the lifespan determined by fate.
Schopenhauer’s concept of the good life also entails virtue, but calls for adopting countermeasures against the will. Seneca and Marcus Aurelius had regarded fate as overwhelming, but not Schopenhauer. He considered it feasible to grow self-aware and adopt measures to minimize the influence of the will.
Schopenhauer’s concept of reason
Like the Ancient Stoics, Schopenhauer relies on reason to grasp the cosmos, reduce suffering, and attain happiness to the largest possible extent; he acknowledged that the will is eternal but human beings can take temporary measures to minimize it.
In his essay “On the will in nature” (1832), Schopenhauer linked those measures to reason. Nature is wild and destructive if left to run its own course, but humans can think and define their own actions.
Like the Ancient Stoics, Schopenhauer aimed at achieving inner peace. The influence of the will renders people anxious, stressed, and intellectually short-sighted, he argued. That’s why it is crucial to grow self-aware and cultivate prudence and self-discipline.
Schopenhauer’s concept of the universe is far more realistic than the concept put forward by Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. I disagree with their belief in an universe governed by reason.
In Schopenhauer’s writings, the will is described as wild and irrational. I think that his observations are accurate when one refers to nature. Proportion, harmony and symmetry are human creations. The will, if left to operate undisturbed, leads to pain, destruction and chaos.
Schopenhauer’s concepts of happiness and virtue
What about the concept of virtue? Schopenhauer praised the virtues of empathy and compassion above all. He held them in high regard because they increase our self-awareness and help us minimize the dire influence of the will.
In his book “Two fundamental problems in ethics” (1843), Schopenhauer emphasizes compassion as the primary virtue. I must point out that Seneca and Marcus Aurelius wouldn’t have agreed with Schopenhauer in this point. In their eyes, integrity, justice and equanimity play a larger role in ethics.
Schopenhauer’s concept of happiness diverges from the idea of eudaimonia (thriving, flourishing) put forward by Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle (384-322 BC) considered happiness as the primary goal of human life and recommended sustained action to pursue it.
In contrast, Schopenhauer focused his ethical advice on the reduction of suffering. He still viewed happiness as a primary goal, but one that is hard to achieve and even harder to sustain.
His “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851) revolve around the reduction of suffering by increasing one’s self-awareness, self-reliance, prudence and foresight. Think out your moves before taking the next step. Secure adequate margins of safety. If you do all that, you are going to put the odds in your favour.
Schopenhauer’s concept of the meaning of life
For what concerns the meaning of life, Schopenhauer gave answers that paved the way for existentialist thinkers Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) and Albert Camus (1913-1960).
Schopenhauer rejected the idea of predestination. There is a relentless life force (the will) prompting all living creatures in a certain direction, but individuals remain free to cultivate their self-awareness, prudence, foresight and self-reliance.
The will is not providing humans with absolute meaning or narrow directions. That’s why Schopenhauer determinedly said no to the national spirit put forward by Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814) and to the absolute spirit predicated by Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831).
Do not waste your time with Fichte’s and Hegel’s delusions. Instead of providing meaning to human life, they only generate distractions from important issues. The truth is that individuals are responsible to create their own meaning.
Schopenhauer’s concept of peace of mind
Sartre’s and Camus’ concept of existential fear doesn’t exist in Schopenhauer’s writings, but he did acknowledge that stress and anxiety are omnipresent in human life. To combat them, he drew inspiration from Buddhism, Hinduism and Christianity.
While Sartre and Camus offer very little practical advice to improve one’s life, I can only praise Schopenhauer’s efforts in this respect. His “Parerga and Paralipomena” supply numerous suggestions to reduce anxiety and increase peace of mind.
Schopenhauer took the Buddhist and Christian concepts of contemplation and created something new. He didn’t care much for self-analysis and abstract speculation but had gathered long experience in artistic contemplation, in particular with music.
The regular practice of artistic contemplation can exert very positive influences on human psychology. Whether you choose music, painting, literature, theatre or any other art form, it is up to you.
Schopenhauer’s concept of artistic contemplation
According to Schopenhauer, the contemplation of beautiful artworks or nature can lift one’s spirit and help us regain peace of mind, which he regarded as first step to happiness.
Schopenhauer occasionally employed satire in his writings. This fact has prompted some historians to compare him with Voltaire (1694-1778). Indeed, Schopenhauer had read Voltaire, but the comparison is inaccurate.
Voltaire’s use of satire is extremely aggressive. He attacked specific persons and social institutions with bitter remarks. In contrast, Schopenhauer employed humorous, benevolent satire with the goal of driving his points home.
Schopenhauer’s polished, laconic style is delightful to read. His satire remains well-intended, and his concept of achieving happiness by reducing suffering and increasing peace of mind permeates his whole work.
If you are interested in applying rational ideas here and now to address all sort of issues, I recommend you my book “The 10 principles of rational living.”
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