The ethics system proposed by Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) is similar to Ancient Stoicism in some aspects, but offers more complex explanations on the workings of nature, society, and human motivation.
Schopenhauer theorized that life is fundamentally marked by the influence of the will (“life force”) which will generate a large amount of suffering and dissatisfaction if you fail to take countermeasures.
The theory of the will was put forward by Schopenhauer in his work “The world as will and representation” (1818); people are subjected to the influence of the will, driven to ensure their survival, reproduction, and seek short-term pleasure.
According to Schopenhauer, the will is prompting humans to continual struggle. It generates more and more desires that can not all be satisfied.
Schopenhauer’s path to happiness
The way to happiness entails two steps.
First, you should grow self-aware of the influence of the will. This means, paying attention to your motivation, goals and desires, see if they make sense, and assess their costs.
Second, adopt countermeasures against the dire influence of the will. This means aligning your decisions with what’s good for you, what’s feasible and affordable. It also means letting go of unworkable projects and dead-end situations.
Schopenhauer regarded compassion and empathy as the key virtues. He drew this idea from Buddhism, Hinduism, as well as from Christianity. Compassion rests on the ability to view in others a part of ourselves. It’s coupled to empathy, the ability to understand how other creatures are feeling.
Schopenhauer and compassion
According to Schopenhauer’s 1843 book “Two fundamental problems of ethics,” compassion is the basis of all morality, By acknowledging and alleviating the suffering in other creatures, we can circumvent the dire influence of the will.
In this respect, Schopenhauer’s morality resembles the one put forward by the Ancient Stoic Seneca (4-65 AD) in “Letters to Lucilium” and “On clemency.”
Seneca had recommended equanimity, self-discipline, and prudence. Schopenhauer emphasized empathy and compassion with the goal of gaining perspective. You can get a fair view of the world only when you forget about your own desires (driven by the will), and pay attention of other people.
Schopenhauer and Kantian ethics
Schopenhauer’s ethics differ widely from Kantian ethics. In the “Critique of practical reason” (1788). Kant had emphasized duty and rationality. According to Kant, virtues are categorical imperatives that can be rationally identified. Schopenhauer did not endorse this approach.
Categorical imperatives are patterns of behaviour that one should expect from all people in all circumstances. Kant wrote that categorical imperatives can be deducted rationally, but this is debatable. I’m sure that you will not get a hundred people to agree on a dozen categorical imperatives.
Schopenhauer regarded the Kantian categorical imperatives as too theoretical. Kant’s “supremacy of reason” appears to be little more than a figure of speech; otherwise, Kant would have established a universal morality codex followed by everybody.
Schopenhauer and empathy
According to Schopenhauer, morality requires empathy. If one does not understand the experience of suffering, it is difficult to care for other people. It is typical of psychopaths to disregard the views, feelings and rights of other people. Psychopaths are the opposite of ethical persons.
Schopenhauer’s virtue is teleological (“telos” means “goal” in Greek). Virtues such as compassion have the goal reducing suffering and increasing happiness. They are linked to real-life persons, not to abstractions such as the categorical imperatives.
Schopenhauer and ethical assessment
One of the main ideas in Schopenhauer’s “Two fundamental problems of ethics” is that actions should be assessed also by their consequences, not only by their intention.
Kant had argued that morality is purely abstract, that is, that actions should be judged good or bad by themselves, without taking their consequences into account. Schopenhauer rejected this argument as absurd.
If you fail to look at obvious consequences, is it not true that you remain fully liable for any damage caused by your actions? Kant built an ethical system that has no connection to reality and that fails to pass essential requirements of feasibility.
For this reason, Schopenhauer mainly recommended virtues that have tangible benefits for those who practise them and for other people. The virtues of self-discipline, prudence, foresight and parsimony constitute good examples. They’ll enable you to lead a better life and gather resources they can benefit others.
Schopenhauer and virtues
Adopting adequate margins of safety is a virtue (a beneficial habit) that is not praised often enough. It’s implicit in all essays collected in “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851). Schopenhauer wrote those essays to illustrate his ethical recommendations.
You’ll do much better in life if you adopt adequate margins of safety in important undertakings. I am not referring only to business or professional activities.
Margins of safety should be adopted also in your health and private life, in major purchases, sports, and even when booking your holidays. You do not want to be endangered or stranded at your holiday destination because of an imprudent decision.
If you are interested in applying rational ideas to decision-making in difficult times, I recommend you my book “Against all odds: How to achieve great victories in desperate times.”
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