Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) rejected the unshakable optimism of his contemporaries about the power of reason. He acknowledged that all individuals are potentially able to think, but pointed out that few people make the effort to assess facts accurately and draw logical conclusions.
His book “On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason” (1808) defends the thesis that events can be traced to a particular cause in each case. Nothing happens by chance. Also human decisions can be traced to specific causes.
However, Schopenhauer found an exception to the principle of sufficient reason and built his whole philosophy around this exception.
He named the exception “the will” (life force) and theorized that the will is driving all living entities to secure their survival and reproduction, and to seek short-term pleasure.
Schopenhauer described the will in his book “The world as will and representation”(1818). He called the will an irrational, wild, relentless, blind force that drives animals and humans in a certain direction without giving any thought to cost and risks.
Why Schopenhauer linked reason to self-awareness
Humans can understand the cosmos to the extent that they grow aware of the will. Self-awareness is not automatic. It can only be acquired by making a pause and thinking about one’s perceptions.
According to Schopenhauer, self-awareness is a prerequisite of reason. Unless you short-circuit the influence of the will, it is going to control your life and drive you to make short-sighted, harmful decisions.
Without self-awareness, reason can become a double-edged sword. Without consciousness of the will, reason cannot judge facts accurately.
On the one hand, it helps people handle the practicalities of earning a living, eating, social interactions, etc. I would rate all sane human beings capable of this level of reasoning.
On the other hand, reason is going to magnify the influence of the will. As soon as a small desire is satisfied, reason creates a bigger one. As soon as a certain goal has been achieved, it is going to set a more ambitious one.
Schopenhauer viewed the multiplication of desires as a sure recipe to high stress, anxiety, and suffering. In his book “Two fundamental problems of ethics” (1843), he determinedly said no to a status of perpetual striving, failure, and dissatisfaction.
The influence of the will can overpower human motivation, render it blind or cloud it with prejudice. Schopenhauer viewed prejudice as more harmful than lack of wisdom, ignorance, or lack of reasoning ability.
Schopenhauer’s views on reason compared to Aristotle’s
Schopenhauer diverges from Aristotle (384-322 BC) on the role of reason. Aristotle viewed reason as the key characteristic that differentiates humans from animals, and the ultimate guide for making decisions. Schopenhauer rated reason as important, but insufficient in the absence of self-awareness.
Aristotle had divided reason in two types: the practical and the theoretical; the former corresponds to Schopenhauer’s low-level logic for handling the practicalities of life; and the latter encompasses contemplation and abstract ideas.
If we use Schopenhauer’s categories, Aristotelian theoretical reasoning must necessarily include awareness of the will. Self-awareness precedes contemplation and abstract ideas because it enables accurate perception of the facts.
In his book “Nicomachean Ethics,” Aristotle viewed reason as the main tool for attaining eudaimonia, that is, for attaining happiness, flourishing, thriving, or fulfilment. Schopenhauer is aligned with Aristotle’s view, but adds the prerequisite of self-awareness.
Schopenhauer and the role of reason in ethics
Reason shapes Schopenhauer’s ethical values as much as it had shaped Aristotle’s, but the theory of the will enacts changes in the weighting given to various virtues.
In “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851), Schopenhauer holds prudence, foresight, and self-reliance in high regard, but gives priority to empathy and compassion. In this sense, he is closer to Buddhism, Hinduism and Christianity than to Aristotle.
Aristotle had favoured prudence, foresight, justice, integrity, honesty, self-discipline, self-reliance, initiative, benevolence, generosity, and magnanimity. The “Nicomachean Ethics” does not endorse empathy and compassion in particular, but they are embedded in benevolence, generosity and magnanimity.
The list of virtues alone shows that reason plays a stronger role in Aristotle’s than in Schopenhauer’s ethical system. In his arguments for empathy and compassion, Schopenhauer doesn’t refer to reason. Instead, he talks about “transcending the will,” which is equivalent to escaping it by growing more self-aware.
Schopenhauer’s views on reason compared to Cicero’s
I must also point out that Schopenhauer’s views differ from those of reason’s greatest promoter in Ancient Rome, namely, Cicero (106-43 BC). In his essay “The purpose of human life,” he speaks in favour of cultivating thoughtfulness and virtue.
In contrast to Schopenhauer, Cicero held moral principles as self-evident to all cultivated persons and universal. For Cicero, the goal of education is to help students discover ethical values and exercise their reasoning abilities.
Schopenhauer did not share Cicero’s belief in self-evident ethics coupled to reason. I must take side with Schopenhauer in this matter. I wonder if Cicero retracted his trust in reason when he was about to be murdered by Marc Antony’s soldiers.
According to Schopenhauer, one first needs to render reason fully operational by counteracting the will; that’s why he didn’t endorse the moral obligations listed by Cicero in his essay “On duties.”
Cicero had a profound love for books and compared a home without books to a soulless body. He truly believed that people became automatically better through reading. Schopenhauer is sceptical in this matter, arguing that most individuals read little and without discernment.
Schopenhauer assigned a crucial role to reason, but kept his confidence to a realistic level. He knew the difference between the potential to use reason and its actual use. The latter requires sustained effort and dedication.
If you are interested in applying rational principles to real-life situations, I recommended you my book “Sequentiality: The amazing power of finding the right sequence of steps.”
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