The influence of Indian religion on Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1960) falls within a growing interest of Western thinkers in Eastern culture. In the field of art, such tendency has been named “Orientalism” and is observable particularly amongst French painters.
In the period 1810-1820, Schopenhauer became acquainted with Indian philosophy by reading its foundational texts. I am referring to the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. Those give an outline of the three key concepts in Indian religion, namely, the concepts of Maya and Atman.
By “Maya,” Hindus mean a world perception that is tainted by delusion or prejudice. Hindus consider that we can perceive reality only through the veil of Maya, that is, in a distorted and biased manner.
Schopenhauer drew a parallelism between the veil of Maya and his theory of the will (“life force”) presented in his book “The world as will and representation,” published in 1818.
Schopenhauer and the Hindu concepts of “Maya” and “Atman”
For persons unfamiliar with the theory of the will, the world cannot be perceived without distortions. The observer is going to prove unable to see things as they are. He is going to arrive at wrong conclusions because the will is blurring his thoughts.
By “Atman,” Hindus refer to the individual self or soul. It is the decisive element in establishing one’s relationship with the world. However, the individuality is not total because Hindus regard the “Atman” as part of the universal consciousness.
Schopenhauer drew a parallelism between the “Atman” and self-aware individuals, that is, those who are familiar with the theory of the will. If you cultivate your self-awareness and take measures to protect yourself against the dire influence of the will, you are going to enhance your “Atman.”
In his book “On the will in nature” (1832). Schopenhauer employs concepts similar to “Maya” and “Atman.” The former drives human existence because it taints all perceptions with a deceptive veil. It obscures the nature of reality and prompts all persons to focus on the short term and make poor decisions.
Schopenhauer and Hindu pessimism
On the one hand, Schopenhauer shares the pessimistic view in Hinduism. He acknowledges that “Maya” generates a deep, sustained unease. Depending on the circumstances, it is going to inflict acute pain, disorientation, or frustration.
On the other hand, Schopenhauer disagrees with the Hindus that regard it as impossible to avert or reduce the impermanent, unsatisfactory nature of human existence. In his book “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851), Schopenhauer presents examples of valid methods to perceive the world clearly, protect oneself and raise one’s chances of happiness.
In the field of aesthetics, Schopenhauer adopted the Hindu view of art as a method for transcending the world. His theory of the will makes people aware of the dangers of hurried, ill- thought decisions ignoring long-term consequences. Art gives us the possibility to escape for a while the influence of the will and perceive reality clearly.
Schopenhauer and Hindu aesthetic experience
Hinduism employs architecture, sculpture, music, literature, and dance as methods for transcending the world. All of them can be used successfully, but Schopenhauer mostly used music for his own artistic contemplation.
What is the purpose of those aesthetic experiences? First of all, they help practitioners gain spiritual insights and break free from the suffering (stress, anxiety, worry, emotional passivity) imposed by the world.
Schopenhauer argued that the will drives humans, day after day, into constant striving for satisfaction, but more often than not, the world prevent people from attaining their goals; failure and frustration are widespread; happiness is unsteady and rare.
How do you break through the veil of Maya and gain an accurate view of the world? Both Hinduism and Schopenhauer agree that the true nature of reality is hidden beyond the veil of appearances, but they offer very different prescriptions.
The Hindu prescription revolves around meditation aided by aesthetic experiences (architecture, sculpture, music, literature, and dance). However, meditation is expected to increase only one’s spiritual resilience, not one’s happiness.
Schopenhauer gave his recommendations in his book “Two fundamental problems in ethics” (1843) and other works. He is offering many more tools than Hinduism ever did. He favours artistic contemplation, self-awareness, self-reliance, securing a margin of safety, risk avoidance, prudence and foresight.
Schopenhauer and the Hindu “veil of Maya”
“Atman” must be created and developed by each individual, argued Schopenhauer. The human mind is like a troubled sea, always hit by storms, lightening and heavy rain. Without self- awareness, we will keep jumping from one thought to the next, unable to gain ground.
Schopenhauer acknowledged that self-awareness is going to remain partial at best. It’s not feasible to break through the veil of Maya totally and permanently, but this doesn’t mean that we cannot improve our lives immeasurably.
In order to counter the dire influence of the will, one doesn’t need to be omniscient; in order to increase one’s self-awareness and self-confidence, one does not need to unravel all mysteries of existence.
You just need to employ workable strategies to make things better, even if perfection cannot be achieved. Hindus tend to be rather pessimistic about the passage of time, expecting tides to sweep away all that is fleeting and ephemeral. Schopenhauer is giving a more realistic view. Death is ultimately unavoidable, but in the meantime, life can be enjoyed to the highest level.
Schopenhauer and the Hindu “Atman” interconnection
Did Schopenhauer endorse the Hindu concept of connection between the individual “Atman” and the cosmos? Yes, he did endorse it but only a limited extent.
Schopenhauer agreed that each individual shares the major motivations from the will (secure one’s survival, reproduction, pursue of short-term pleasure) but he can then develop his own defences. “Atman” is not a mechanistic personal adaptation but an array of complex intellectual habits.
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