Various thinkers have tried to put rational systems of virtues and character development into practice. Their attempts have attained success to the extent that they are aligned with the ideas presented by Aristotle (384-322 BC) in his “Eudemian Ethics” and “Nicomachean Ethics.”
In those works, Aristotle outlines his five key ideas about virtue and character development. Let’s summarize those five ideas.
First, Aristotle placed at the centre of philosophy the fact that human beings are rational, or more precisely, the fact that human beings possess the capability to be rational.
We are the only creatures able to grasp and apply logic. In contrast to animals, we can turn observations into abstractions, and create new concepts by combining and recombining those abstractions.
Second, by employing reason, human beings are capable of understanding causality. We can analyse events and entities to figure out their composition (“material cause”), shape (“formal cause”), the forces that move them (“efficient cause”) and most importantly, the purpose of their actions (“final cause”).
Causality in Aristotle’s theory of virtue and character development
Third, the final cause plays a major role in understanding all human actions. For instance, in order to categorize a death as a crime or as an accident, the police will have to figure out the motivation (“final cause”) of the suspect. Did he intend to kill the victim?
In book one of his work on rhetoric, Aristotle named seven causes for human action, namely, chance, passion, the forces of nature, habit, reason, compulsion, and desire. Nonetheless, he pointed out that happiness is the ultimate goal of all humans.
Fourth, ethics is the science of attaining happiness. Aristotle taught that the practice of virtue is the surest path to happiness. You can substantially raise your chances of attaining happiness if you assiduously practise courage, temperance, benevolence, justice, generosity, and all other rational virtues.
Fifth, Aristotle wrote in his “Nicomachean Ethics” that each person is the main contributor to his own happiness. Decisions and actions should be examined in advance in order to ensure that they are correct. If you make good choices and carry them out, you should normally achieve happiness.
Character development is a proven method for making good choices because it renders them automatic. A man of character will do the right thing without hesitation because he has made courage, temperance, and justice part of his personality.
Aristotle’s theory of virtue and character development versus Schopenhauer’s
Let us now assess a modern proposal for an ethical system that partially overlaps Aristotle’s theory of virtue and character development.
The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) did not consider himself a follower of Aristotle, but came up with lifestyle recommendations that overlap the “Nicomachean Ethics.”
Schopenhauer outlined his views on ethics in his book “The World as Will and Representation,” published in 1819. The key idea in the book is that the world in general (and human action in particular) are driven by a strong vital force. Schopenhauer called that force “the will.”
I must point out that Schopenhauer had deep knowledge of Aristotle’s “Eudemian Ethics” and “Nicomachean Ethics.” He had studied them in Berlin and Jena Universities when he was pursuing a doctorate in philosophy.
By replacing the Aristotelian final cause by “the will,” he is subordinating human motivation to external factors. According to Schopenhauer, “the will” is going to awaken strong desires. When those remain unfulfilled, suffering will ensue.
For Schopenhauer, the purpose of ethics is to minimize the suffering generated by “the will.” He considered empathy and compassion as the cardinal virtues because they help us cope with life’s disappointments.
Aristotle had identified happiness as the primary objective for humans. Schopenhauer agreed that “the will” tends to drive humans to pursue their own interests but occasionally, it makes them display empathy, compassion, and altruism.
While Aristotle favoured virtues that lead to achievement in a tangible manner (wealth, friendships, love), Schopenhauer is recommending a lifestyle that minimizes risks and suffering in case of failure.
Aristotle was well aware that many actions in life will result in failure. He advised courage, but without oversized risks. He regarded trial and error as inevitable in the path to achievement and happiness.
Why Aristotle’s theory of character development leads to success
In practical terms, there is no difference between Aristotle’s pursuit of happiness and Schopenhauer’s desires driven by “the will.” Their goals are similar and perfectly understandable.
Unfortunately, Schopenhauer rejected Aristotle’s view of the universe as benevolent. Aristotle viewed success and happiness as the normal outcome of human actions, despite mistakes and setbacks along the way. In contrast, Schopenhauer was deeply pessimistic.
Schopenhauer gave recommendations on how to reduce risk in all areas of life (financial, emotional, etc.) in order to ensure as minimum of happiness if things fall apart. In this respect, he regarded character development as the cultivation of prudence, self-reliance, and emotional strength.
The problem with Schopenhauer’s recommendations is that they will prevent you from exploiting your potential. Excessive anxiety and fear will render you blind to opportunity, or freeze your initiates.
You should do much better if you adopt the Aristotelian theory of virtue and character development. Despite setbacks, failures and disappointments, the odds are tilted in favour of those who take daily steps to achieve their dreams.
Aristotle was right in regarding courage as the fundamental virtue. Courage is the pre-requisite for all other virtues because it helps you overcome life’s hassles and discard the pessimism spread by risk-averse people like Schopenhauer.
If you are interested in applying Aristotle’s ideas to solving real-life problems, I recommend you my book titled “Against all odds: How to achieve great victories in desperate times.”
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