The sound principles established by Aristotle (384-322 BC) in the field of ethics were quickly abandoned. His philosophy of virtue and character development gathered a vast number of enemies precisely because it is fair and realistic.
Too many people don’t want to hear the truths enunciated by Aristotle, namely, that human beings are rational, that they are responsible for their own choices, and that their happiness will depend on making the right choices.
In his books “Eudemian Ethics” and “Nicomachean Ethics,” Aristotle had identified happiness as the primary goal for every human being, and ethics as the science of achieving happiness.
Virtues, according to Aristotle, are habits that contribute to happiness. He encouraged his students to practise benevolence, courage, honesty, justice, temperance and generosity because those habits are proven to make one’s life better.
Character development consists of acquiring good habits, so that those become second nature. If you practise temperance, courage and honesty every day, they’ll help you make the right choices when confronted with severe problems.
It takes a long time to develop a virtuous character. Aristotle wrote in the second book of “Nicomachean Ethics,” that the development of virtues requires constant practice. There are no short-cuts to character development but the efforts are worth it.
Note that I’m referring to partitions within Aristotle’s works as “books” because each original hand-written work consisted of several parchment rolls. When quoting Aristotelian works, it is customary to refer to the original parchment rolls as “books” instead of calling them sections or chapters.
Why have other philosophers opposed Aristotle’s theory of virtue and character development? Because of fear, anxiety and wishful thinking; because they don’t want to take responsibility for their own success and happiness.
Blaise Pascal and Aristotle’s theory of virtue and character development
The French philosopher Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) is one of the leading opponents to Aristotelian ethics. His writing in this area were published in 1669 under the title “Pensees,” which in French means “Thoughts” or “Reflections.”
Pascal’s concept of virtue is the opposite of Aristotle’s. The difference between their ideas is not a matter of chance. Pascal had enjoyed a sound education and was very familiar with the works of Aristotle. His opposition to Aristotle was deliberate in every respect.
Pascal’s concept of virtue is rooted in medieval superstition, fear and anxiety. He viewed confusion and apprehension as the dominant emotions in humans, and reason as incapable to deal with those problems.
He discarded Aristotle’s call for rationality and certainty, but then devoted dozens of pages to abstruse speculations, arguing that one should believe in God and pray just in case. He spoke in favour of self-sacrifice and humility, but acknowledged that they won’t lead to happiness.
In Pascal’s theory of virtue, character development actually means character destruction. Instead of leading to effectiveness and achievement, Pascal’s virtues lead to passivity, poverty and self-effacement.
I can only categorize Pascal’s ethics as deeply nihilistic. His argument that virtue comes from recognizing one’s limitations and embracing humility doesn’t make any sense. His definition of virtue as the opposite of worldly pleasures is absurd.
In the third book of “Nicomachean Ethics,” Aristotle had identified courage as the key virtue because it makes all others possible. In contrast, Pascal never ceased talking about human fragility, sinfulness, and limitations.
It’s astonishing that twenty-two centuries after Aristotle had written the “Nicomachean Ethics,” vast numbers of individuals could take Pascal seriously. Instead of learning how to achieve happiness on earth, they were learning how to turn their own lives into hell.
Jeremy Bentham and Aristotle’s theory of virtue and character development
Unfortunately, the attacks against Aristotle’s theory of virtue became worse as time went by. The English philosopher and lawyer Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) devised a moral system meant to adapt Ancient Greek hedonism to the modern era.
Bentham called his ethical system “utilitarianism” and gave an outline in his book “Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation,” published in 1789.
In Ancient Greece, Epicurus (341-271 BC) had put forward a moderate version of hedonism. He had identified pleasure as the only goal of morality, but he was talking about long-term pleasure. Epicurus had warned against short-term pleasure that can generate pain and suffering down the road.
Epicurus’ ideas already constituted a substantial degradation of Aristotle’s. He had discarded Aristotle’s focus on reason and happiness, in order to promote a subjective, sensual conception that obliterates virtue and character development.
Mathematics and Aristotle’s theory of virtue and character development
I regard Bentham’s “utilitarianism” as Epicurus on steroids. It ignores that Aristotle’s definition of human beings as rational is not a mandate, but an observation.
Aristotle said that humans have the capacity to be rational, but also acknowledged that individuals will sometimes choose to be stupid. It is up to each person to learn to make the right choices, amend mistakes, and seek happiness. That’s the whole point of virtue and character development.
In contrast, Bentham considered virtue as something to be mandated. The title of his ethics book from 1789 “Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation” includes the term “legislation.” Bentham was proposing an ethical system where virtue is made mandatory.
Aristotle was aware that making choices can be difficult for individuals because the path to happiness is not self-evident. It may also happen that situations call for urgent decisions in the absence of sufficient information.
In book one of “Nicomachean Ethics,” Aristotle accepts that many ethical choices must remain approximate because life is not always supplying complete, exact information. The pursuit of happiness is not a precise science. It’s not mathematics.
Bentham sustained the opposite view and called for laws to be passed on the basis of mathematical calculations that would establish how much happiness they deliver and to how many people.
Utilitarianism and Aristotle’s theory of virtue and character development
Aristotle must have turned in his grave upon hearing of the application of mathematical calculations in the field of ethics. I cannot imagine a larger abomination. It destroys the concept of virtue and the purpose of character development.
While Aristotelian philosophy encourages individuals to do their best to achieve happiness, the idea of “utilitarianism” will shift responsibility to people in charge of making mathematical happiness calculations, which are as unrealistic as absurd.
Bentham rejected the Aristotelian concept of virtues such as courage, temperance and justice, calling them subjective and imprecise. He viewed his happiness mathematics as massively superior and more scientific.
History has proven Bentham hundred per cent wrong. Every possible abuse and corruption have been carried out by using utilitarian arguments; every dictator has claimed to be uniquely capable of performing happiness calculations to justify all sorts of atrocities.
The Aristotelian theory of virtue and character development remains as true today as it was twenty-eight centuries ago. It is based on reality and human nature, and outlines a path for each person to expand his skills, work hard, and achieve happiness.
If you are interested in applying Aristotelian principles to solving real-life issues, I recommend you my book “Thriving in difficult times.”
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