The process of philosophical development is similar to the process of learning to walk after you have suffered an injury. It takes lots of training for your muscles to work properly and in a coordinated matter.
The learning process can prove tough, but works fine if you are willing to put in the hours; there are ways to accelerate and shorten the process, and from those ways, the most effective is the comparison of concepts between various philosophers.
Comparisons will help you understand aspects that you had not considered before. It will sharpen and speed up your mind to an extent that you had so far regarded as impossible.
Aristotle’s theory of the soul placed in context
In the case of Aristotle’s theory of the soul, there is no better teaching method than comparing it to Plato’s theory of the soul. Plato, who had been a student of Socrates, taught in his school that the soul is immortal and that pre-exists before entering the body.
Plato further taught that the soul is on a quest for truth and knowledge, which it can acquire by remembering eternal truths encountered before birth. Plato named those eternal truths or perfect abstractions “Forms.”
When Christianity began to spread in the earlier years of the Roman Empire, the soul played a central role similar to the one it had played in Plato’s philosophy.
Christianity teaches that the soul is created by God and that is thus immortal. It regards the soul as the seat of all moral responsibility and teaches that the soul survives physical death. After death, the qualities acquired by the soul will lead to its salvation or punishment.
Similarly, Islam regards the soul as a person’s inner essence that will be judged in the afterlife. Depending on the qualities of the soul, a person will ascend to paradise or rot in hell.
Hinduism also shows deep similarities to Plato’s conception of the soul. Hindus believe in reincarnation. They consider the soul eternal and mobile. A soul will experience many lifetimes in different bodies until it reaches spiritual enlightenment and unites with the universal soul.
Buddhism also believes in the concept of reincarnation. For Buddhists, the individual consciousness or soul is trapped in a cycle of suffering and rebirth. The cycle will continue until the soul attains Nirvana, a state of liberation.
Moral responsibility is the central idea linking the soul to ethics. Those who belief in a soul sustain that humans possess an intrinsic moral compass or conscience. This inner sense of right and wrong will guide their decisions behaviour.
However, the problem of mythical conceptions of the soul is that they somewhat remove individual moral responsibility. If we inherit our ideas from otherworldly “Forms,” are we really responsible for those ideas? If each soul undergoes a process of reincarnation, is someone really responsible for his soul?
Practicality of Aristotle’s theory of the soul
Aristotle’s ethical philosophy is also tied to his conception of the soul, but he was more reality-oriented than Plato. He did not worry so much about abstract “Forms” existing in a hidden realm.
For Aristotle, the soul’s functions are practical, not ethereal. In his work “Nicomachean Ethics,” he argued that the purpose of the soul is to allow individual to perfect themselves through ethical excellence or virtue.
Virtue is the primary means to achieving a happy life, which is characterized intellectual flourishing. Virtue, according to Aristotle, is a disposition of the soul that enables humans to act in accordance with reason and moral principles.
Aristotle identifies moral virtues such as courage, justice, and temperance, as essential for achieving a well-balanced life. For him, ethical values are not arbitrary external rules, but are connected to the workings of the soul.
Aristotle’s theory of the soul and Hinduism
In contrast to Hinduism and Buddhism, Aristotle regarded a soul’s moral responsibility as immediate. Bad ideas lead to bad decisions, which bring harsh consequences here and now. You will not need to wait for reincarnation and karma to suffer the dire consequences of recklessness or foolishness.
Aristotle did not believe in a soul’s journey through multiple lifetimes. While Hinduism states that one’s situation is a result of moral choices made in a prior life, Aristotle advocated for a direct correlation between cause and effect.
The Hindu idea of reincarnation is unknown in Aristotelian philosophy. Hindus are convinced that good actions lead to a positive karma and better future incarnations; today’s dishonest actions will result in negative consequences in the next life. In contrast, Aristotle called for practising real virtues that bring a reward here and now.
It is also important to point out that the values associated with the Hindu concept of virtue are different from those that Aristotle promoted.
Hindus call for compassion, non-violence, and detachment from worldly desires. Their aim is to purify the soul and help it attain Nirvana. Hindus encourage individuals to make choices that promote their spiritual growth and enlightenment.
The Hindu concept of the soul is linked to the capacity for empathy and compassion. They say that all individuals possess a soul that connects them to the universe; thus, they emphasize treating other people with kindness, compassion, and respect.
Self-actualization and Aristotle’s theory of the soul
In contrast, Aristotle called for self-actualization, justice and self-discipline because those are practical tools for achieving happiness here and now. He had nothing against empathy and compassion, but did not regard them as primary virtues.
In his works “Phaedrus” and “Republic,” Plato argued that the soul’s highest purpose is the pursuit of knowledge and the realization of virtue.
According to Plato, individuals who behave immorally do so out of ignorance. They have failed to fulfil the soul’s duty of seeking eternal wisdom. Again, like in Hinduism, Plato’s works refer to a higher, invisible realm, not to the word’s reality.
Aristotle presented his ethical philosophy in his work titled “Nicomachean Ethics.” His idea of virtue is deeply intertwined with his conception of the soul.
He believed that the soul’s rational aspect, the rational soul, is responsible for moral virtues. According to Aristotle, virtues are developed through rational choices that lead a flourishing, happy life. You do not need to wait for reincarnation to claim a reward.
Aristotle distinguished between intellectual virtues (those that arise from education, experience and reasoning) and moral virtues (those that arise from habit and practice). Intellectual and moral virtues must go hand in hand for person to progress.
For Aristotle, individuals with virtuous souls are those who exhibit qualities like courage, temperance and wisdom. Note that his “Nicomachean Ethics” don’t emphasize virtues such as empathy and compassion.
Religion and Aristotle’s theory of the soul
Aristotle’s conception of the soul is radically different from the one in religious traditions such as Christianity. For those who adhere to Christianity, the soul is responsible for one’s moral choices and actions.
Their concepts of sin and redemption are tied to the soul’s moral condition. Christians call people to nurture their souls through altruism, charity, faith and repentance. The objective of moral transformation of the soul (sanctification) is central to Christian ethics.
Similarly, Muslims believe that the soul renders individuals accountability. One’s actions are recorded by angels throughout life. Those records, known as the “Book of Deeds,” will determine the soul’s fate in the afterlife. Islam emphasizes the importance of ethical living to prepare the soul for judgement.
Eastern philosophical traditions such as Confucianism also offers ethical insights tied to the soul, but emphasizes virtues such as benevolence and propriety. They say that those virtues contribute to social harmony, but fail to link them to individual happiness, which is a central theme for Aristotle.
Buddhism focuses on the individual’s path to enlightenment. It sees ethical values as tools for liberating the soul from the cycle of suffering and rebirth. Buddhist precepts include the renunciation to harming other living beings and truthfulness. In practice, it concentrates so strongly on soul purification that it forgets to teach you how to live happily here and now.
Aristotle’s theory of the soul and the path to happiness
Whether you adopt the Aristotelian views of the soul or not will play a major role in your attaining happiness. Your view of the soul and its workings will determine your decisions, your behaviour, and the outcome of your efforts.
Aristotle’s concept of the soul possesses the vast advantage of giving your life a strong sense of purpose. Conversely, those who concentrate on saving their immortal, eternal soul will not care so much about tangible, material success.
While Aristotle is asking you to think for yourself, religious individuals will prefer to consult religious texts and leaders for seeking ethical guidance. Aristotle calls for developing the soul through self-reliant, decisive actions, not otherworldly debates.
Aristotle emphasized the unity of soul and body. His views contrast with the dualism of thinkers like Plato, who believed in the soul as a distinct, immortal entity temporarily inhabiting the body. In view of his mythical conception of the soul, it’s no wonder that Plato failed to offer practical advice on happiness.
The point of virtue, said Aristotle, is that it will lead you to happiness. Courage, temperance and wisdom will develop your soul and deliver positive results into your life. They will enable you to lead a flourishing life.
You should do much better in life if you adopt Aristotelian ideas. They will benefit you and make you happy, day after day. Do not place your trust on philosophers such as Plato, who preach that the soul is rooted in a higher, mythical realm of forms or pure abstractions.
Aristotle’s theory of the soul compared to Plato’s
In contrast to Aristotle’s straightforward and practical views on the soul, Plato complicated things unnecessarily by arguing that the soul is composed of three parts: reason (logos), spirit (thymos), and desire (epithymia).
I doubt that Plato’s speculations about the soul can render anyone wiser or happier. In fact, it will do the opposite because it promotes irresponsibility.
For Plato, the rational part (logos) of the soul is associated with intellect, wisdom, and the capacity for critical thinking. It seeks knowledge, truth, and understanding. Plato considered it the highest aspect of the soul.
In the spirited part (thymos) of the soul, Plato placed honour and courage. It embodies one’s emotional response to injustice and the defence of righteousness.
Thirdly, Plato considered that the soul’s desiring part (which he called “epithymia”) is associated to appetites and cravings. It encompasses bodily needs such as hunger and thirst. Plato linked this aspect of the soul to irrationality, which can prove hard to control.
With his tripartite theory of the soul, Plato is just offering excuses for poor thinking, bad behaviour, and misery. If you let the first and second parts of your soul overrun your mind, you will be a victim of circumstances.
In fact, Sigmund Freud’s theory about the subconscious isn’t far from Plato’s tripartite speculation. Plato’s is calling for the rule of philosopher-kings (like himself), who are driven by the logos, and the submission of everyone else. If you believe that such recommendation can lead to harmony and happiness, you are wrong.
Virtue, for Plato, is the result of a well-ordered soul, where reason guides one’s actions. He calls for the elevation to power of individuals whose desires and spirit are aligned with the dictates of reason.
Plato believed that an individual’s pursuit of knowledge and philosophical inquiry would lead to a virtuous life and the ultimate goal of achieving wisdom, which he viewed as the highest form of knowledge.
In contrast to Aristotle’s, Plato’s views are rather theoretical and impractical. They will keep you focused on abstract, badly defined virtues that achieve very little in real life.
Advantages of Aristotle’s theory of the soul
One of Plato’s most renowned dialogues, “Phaedo,” focuses on the immortality of the soul. Socrates, the central character, is on the brink of his execution and engages in a philosophical discussion with his friends.
Socrates argues that the soul is immortal, and the process of philosophical inquiry helps prepare the soul for the afterlife. He suggests that the philosopher’s pursuit of wisdom is going to help him prepare for death.
Plato’s and Socrates’ arguments are suicidal, and show you how impractical their conception of the soul is. Socrates could have easily escaped and gone into exile if he had espoused the right ideas, instead of talking about “preparing his soul for the afterlife.”
In “The Republic,” Plato outlines his vision of an ideal state and introduces the allegory of the cave. The allegory describes prisoners in a cave who see shadows on the wall, representing the material world, but the true reality is outside the cave.
Plato uses the cave allegory to illustrate his belief in non-material reality. The prisoners represent those who are ignorant of the true nature of the soul and reality. Only people who have escaped the cave will gain insight into the realm of true ideas that lead to enlightenment.
The cave allegory is very poetical, but again fails to provide practical recommendations about how to lead one’s life and attain happiness.
Plato’s dialogue “Timaeus” speaks about the creation of the world by a divine craftsman, the Demiurge, who employed the eternal true ideas (forms) as models. The soul is a divinely created entity, connected to the whole universe. Another nice story, but totally devoid of practical value.
If you want to improve your life here and now, you should embrace the Aristotelian theory of the soul and happiness. It’ll render you self-reliant, effective and happy.
If you are interested in how to apply Aristotle’s ideas day by day in any circumstances, I recommend you my book titled “Rational living, rational working”
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