It is not easy to summarize the work of a lifetime in one sentence, especially when the person in question has written one and half million words. However, in Aristotle’s case, we do not even need a full sentence to summarize his teachings. We can do it in just one word: causality.
Aristotle (384-322 BC) is not only the three most influential philosophers in history, but the creator of brand-new mentality. The other two key philosophers, Plato and Kant, cannot claim the same honour.
Through keen observation and logic, Aristotle arrived at the conclusion that everything in the natural world has a purpose and a cause. When I say “everything,” I really mean everything tangible or intangible, whether in the past, in the present or in the future.
What is Aristotle’s theory of causality?
What is Aristotle’s theory of causality? It’s widely known as “the theory of the four causes” because that’s the name that monks gave it in the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance.
Aristotle named the four causes as follows: the material cause, the formal cause, the efficient cause, and the final cause. The latter is particularly interesting because it links the events of the world to human motivation.
First, the material cause is the substance or ingredients of which something is made. One could say that the material cause is answering the question, “What is this thing made of?” For instance, in the case of a car body, the material cause is steel. In the case of a basketball, the material cause is rubber.
Second, the formal cause represents the shape of a the thing in question. It provides an answer to the question, “What is the shape of this thing? For instance, in the case of a bicycle, the formal cause must necessarily include at least two wheels. In the case of a pen, the formal cause is an elongated thin shape.
Third, the efficient cause. Aristotle defined it as the force responsible for making an event happen. The efficient cause is answering the questions, “What is causing the movement? What is making this thing happen?” In the case of the car, the efficient cause is a car manufacturer. In the case of a bicycle, it is the bicycle manufacturer, and so on.
Fourth, the final cause, which constitutes the most crucial element in Aristotle’s philosophy. The final cause explains the purpose of an action or an event. In Greek, the term purpose is expressed as “telos.” This is why philosophers call the study of Aristotle’s final cause as “teleology,” which means “the study of purpose.”
The final cause is answering questions such as, “What is the goal of this action? What is the point? What is the intended purpose?” In the case of a car purchase, the buyer’s final cause is mobility. In the case of a pen purchase, the final cause is to write, and so on.
The examples that I have used are straightforward, but there are many cases when it proves extremely difficult to figure out the efficient cause and the final cause of events. Twenty-five centuries after Aristotle’s death, we are still struggling to apply his theories consistently.
Implications of Aristotle’s theory of causation
Aristotle’s theory of causation has profound implications on how we assess the natural world and human actions. It enables us to study and explain all sorts of phenomena. It help us study physical objects such as clouds, and the behaviour of all living creatures, also including human beings.
There two unique aspects of Aristotle’s final causation. One, the fact that no prior thinker (neither in Greece nor anywhere else) had come up with the concept, not even Socrates or Plato.
The second unique aspect is that the study of final causation is laying down the foundation for rational discussions on ethics and happiness. I must underline the word “rational” because, in contrast to prior philosophers, Aristotle strived to identify the good life by using reason, not feelings or intuitions.
According to Aristotle, if you identify and pursue your final cause or “telos” correctly, you will enjoy a flourishing, happy life. You’ll be able to fulfil your potential as much as possible, and enjoy every day to the maximum.
Aristotle’s theory of the four causes creates a sophisticated framework for understanding the world. As an intellectual tool, it’s massively more advance that the theories proposed by prior philosophers.
Through his theory of causation, Aristotle left Socrates and Plato literally in the dust. Their conceptions appear as childish and half-cooked if we compare them with Aristotle’s causality.
In the Middle Ages, philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas and Albertus Magnus devoted massive efforts to studying and expanding Aristotle’s theory of causation.
Examples of Aristotle’s material cause
They provided dozens of examples of the material cause, in particular underlying is universality. For Aristotle, every single item, tangible or intangible, in the natural world must have a material cause.
In simple terms, the material cause relates to the physical composition of an object. If you are baking an apple pie, the material cause are the apples, flour, cinnamon, vanilla, etc. that went into the product.
Without those ingredients, the apple pie would not exist, or if the key ingredients are replaced, you might end up with an apricot pie, but not an apple pie.
The nature and characteristics of the apples, flour, vanilla, cinnamon, etc. are determining the texture and qualities of the apple pie. For example, they’ll determine the sweetness of the crust, the sponginess of the pie, etc.
It goes without saying that the examples devised by Thomas Aquinas and Albertus Magnus in the Middle Ages revolved not around apple pies, but around tables, chairs, buildings, statues, and paintings.
Examples of Aristotle’s formal cause
The formal cause represents the shape of a thing, but in this context, we should understand “shape” as internal and external in all possible layers and configurations; the formal cause does not only define the superficial appearance of an object, animal or person. It defines its inner and outer structure in all aspects.
Continuing with the example of the apple pie, the formal cause is the shape, proportions and design that the cook has given to the pie. The cook’s skilled actions have given the pie a recognizable, meaningful, tasty shape, which distinguishes it from a loaf of bread or a muffin.
Aristotle’s distinction between material and formal causes is emphasizing the idea that objects possess a physical existence, material cause, and an underlying shape, formal cause. It helps us understand every object or creature fully by considering not only the substance it is made of, but also its structure or shape.
Examples of Aristotle’s efficient cause
The efficient cause represents the agent or force responsible for bringing something into existence. It’s about understanding the immediate or proximate cause of an event or movement.
In murder investigations, vast efforts are sometimes devoted to identifying the efficient cause. What is the cause of death? Is it true that the victim died because he fell from the window, or was he already dead and then dropped from the window?
Science, and in particular medical science, revolves around the identification of the efficient cause. Why do people fall ill with the flu in the winter, but not in the summer? What’s the cause of fever, and at which point a high temperature becomes dangerous? Aristotle established the foundation for addressing those questions rationally.
Examples of Aristotle’s final cause
In Aristotle’s philosophy, the final cause is the concept that deals with the purpose, aim, or motivation of a phenomenon. It answers the question, “What are you trying to achieve with this action?” In the case of human actions, the correct answer can prove sometimes hard to find.
If you are driving a car in the morning, you may answer that your final cause is to get to work, but we can keep probing for answers. Why did you choose this particular job? What is your goal in the next years if you stay at that job? Why are you not considering a move?
For a living organism, the final cause concerns its survival and happiness. Aristotle believed that everything in the natural world has a purpose, which contributes to order and harmony in the universe. Dogs and cats also have a final cause in their actions, even if those may look random to us.
The final cause implies that we can only understand the full nature someone if we grasp his purpose. This is why the police want to identify the cause of crimes, and not just apprehend the culprits. Sometimes, the cause of a crime is self-evident, but on many occasions, it is not clear why the crime was committed.
Happiness and Aristotle’s final cause
In the positive sense, the final cause of human action is related to the idea of happiness (or “eudaimonia” in Greek). In the eyes of Aristotle, happiness can only be attained if you fulfil your potential by living virtuously and meaningfully.
This perspective, which is unique to Aristotle, is light-years ahead of prior philosophers. Socrates and Plato never managed to link the concepts of virtue and happiness, and their morality commandments lack consistency.
Aristotle was the first thinker in history to emphasize the importance of aligning our actions and purpose rationally, not randomly or emotionally. He sustained that, by doing so, we can attain success and happiness to the maximum extent that is possible under the circumstances.
Aristotle’s theory of causality has laid the groundwork for scientific investigation. It does not detract to Aristotle’s merit that his explanations of natural phenomena were inaccurate by today’s standards.
What counts is that his approach for seeking the reason and purpose behind phenomena set the stage for empirical science. In contrast to Socrates and Plato, Aristotle wanted to grasp the why behind each event.
Thanks to Aristotle’s theory of causality, we can explore the nature of reality, the different types of elements or ingredients, and the connection between material and immaterial aspects.
As we will see in a separate article, Aristotle’s distinction between the potential and the actual help us understand change and motivation. In contrast to Socrates and Plato, Aristotle was convinced that the actualization of potential is driven by final causation, not by tradition, routine, or random feelings.
Ethics and Aristotle’s final cause
Aristotle’s ethical philosophy, and in particular, his views on happiness, are connected to his theory of causality. He believed that living in accordance with one’s final cause (if you can find it!), will help you achieve a higher level of well-being.
In his book titled “Nicomachean Ethics” (written around 330 BC), Aristotle provides a guide for individuals seeking to attain happiness by leading a virtuous life. Note that concept of virtue in Aristotle refers to habits and attitudes that enable us to attain happiness. It doesn’t mean supernatural or divine virtue.
In an upcoming article, I will expand on Aristotle’s views on achievement, success and happiness; what is remarkable is that every aspect of Aristotle’s philosophy is tightly interconnected and consistent. There are no loose ends or contradictions. If we learn to think like Aristotle, we will lead a better, happier life.
If you are interested in how to apply Aristotelian ideas to all kind of difficult situations, I recommend you my book titled “Asymmetry: The shortcut to success when success seems impossible.”
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Aristotle’s concept of teleology
Aristotle’s theory of the four causes
Aristotle’s philosophy of metaphysics
The path of Aristotle’s influence on Western philosophy