Aristotle (384-322 BC) made four decisive contributions to philosophy. First, in metaphysics, he refuted Plato’s theory of forms. While Plato had believed in a world of pure abstractions (which he called “forms”), Aristotle emphasized observing the material world.
Second, Aristotle came up with the concepts of substance and form. He asserted that each item is composed of substance and form. Substance refers to its underlying essence, and form to its individual characteristics.
The combination of substance and form define the identity of each entity or person. Identity determines how an entity will behave, its present and future actions. Those are connected by relations of cause and effect, which constitute Aristotle’s theory of causality.
Aristotle studied motion and defined four types of causation (material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause). The latter (final cause or purpose) is crucial for understanding human motivation and behaviour.
Third, Aristotle reinvented morality in his “Nicomachean Ethics.” He argued that the goal of human life is “eudaimonia” (happiness, flourishing, thriving, fulfilment) and that the path to eudaimonia requires a virtuous life. Aristotle’s view of virtue is linked to individual happiness, not to supernatural edicts.
He came up with a new art theory in his work “Poetics” and identified objective criteria for telling apart good from bad art, explaining the link between art and happiness.
Fourth, in his work “Politics,” Aristotle examined all forms of government (monarchy, aristocracy, polity) and the risks of corruption that transform them into tyranny, oligarchy and mob rule. He favoured a mixed form of government where power is divided amongst the monarch, the aristocracy, and the people.
Let us explore these four key contributions, one by one.
Aristotle’s first key contribution to philosophy: knowledge theory
First, Aristotle refuted once and for all the theory of forms devised by Plato (428-347). Plato had conveyed his philosophy through his dialogues (a literary genre) where Socrates is often the main character.
The key element of Plato’s philosophy is the theory of forms or theory of pure abstractions. Plato believed that the world we perceive is just an imperfect reflection of an intangible world made of pure abstractions or “forms.”
According to Plato, the acquisition of knowledge consists of accessing the world of forms. Plato stated that most people live in a state of ignorance, like prisoners in a cave, perceiving only shadows of a true reality, which can only be accessed through education about the forms.
Aristotle’s greatest contribution was to discard the theory of the forms. We learn through observation and thinking, he said, not by mystical connection to a world of pure abstractions. You should look at reality, study the characteristics of entities, and figure out how they are interconnected through causality.
Aristotle’s second key contribution to philosophy: identity and causality
Second, Aristotle asserted that every entity in the world is composed of substance (its underlying essence) and form (its individual characteristics). By examining those, we can grasp and define the identity of each object or person.
The impact of Aristotle’s analysis tools is revolutionary. It is a recognition that human beings possess the ability to ascertain the individual characteristics of minerals, plants, animals and human beings, and predict their behaviour accordingly.
Unfortunately, countless philosophers in history have opted for deviating from Aristotle’s insights. Even ten centuries after Aristotle’s death, the French philosopher Rene Descartes (1586 -1650) was proposing a knowledge theory inferior to the one put forward by Aristotle.
In 1641, Descartes published his “Meditations on Primary Philosophy,” outlining his knowledge theory. He tried to arrive at knowledge by doubting everything that could be doubted.
He eventually arrived at the conclusion “Cogito, ergo sum,” which means in Latin “I think, therefore I am.” In this way, he claimed to have proven that the basis of knowledge is innate.
Aristotle must have turned in his grave upon learning that it had taken a thousand years for a philosopher to come up with such nonsense. For all practical purposes, Descartes had come back to Plato’s theory of the forms.
To make things worse, Descartes proposed a dual view of reality. He distinguished between the mind (“res cogitans”) and the body (“res extensa”), arguing that the mind is non-material, and the body, material.
Indeed, Descartes had come back to Plato’s imaginary world of pure abstractions, a world that Aristotle had refuted. What is remarkable is that people paid attention to Descartes, whose only achievement was to spread philosophical errors.
Aristotle’s third key contribution to philosophy: ethics and happiness
Third, Aristotle reinvented morality in his “Nicomachean Ethics” by identifying happiness as the goal of human life. It is crucial to point out that Aristotle’s concept of happiness is very complex. It is linked to achievement, flourishing and thriving, not to the selfish satisfaction of physical urges.
After Aristotle’s death in 322 BC, it did not take long for his morality definitions to be forgotten. They were rediscovered in the Renaissance but then forgotten again. For instance, Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) showed no understanding of Aristotelian ethics.
In his book “Leviathan,” written in 1651, Hobbes presents a very pessimistic view of human nature. He described the state of nature as a condition of war of man against man, where life is solitary, poor, brutish, and short. What a gigantic difference with Aristotle’s optimistic view of human nature.
Hobbes argued that, in the absence of strong authority, all individuals will be in constant conflict. In contrast, Aristotelian ethics provides a more realistic conception of human beings.
It is astonishing that Hobbes had overlooked vast historical evidence of the human striving towards peace, cooperation and trade. Hobbes’ definition of the state of nature as solitary and brutish lack any basis in reality. Aristotle was obviously right.
Aristotle’s fourth key contribution to philosophy: governance
Fourth, Aristotle favoured a mixed form of government in order to prevent corruption, tyranny, oligarchy and mob rule. It was clear to him that power concentration leads to abuses.
Unfortunately, the lesson was not learned. Over and over, it has happened in history that philosophers had advocated for all types of power concentration. They have argued that tyranny is necessary because of some crisis, emergency or mystical force.
In every case, power concentration has led to corruption and abuses, just as Aristotle had predicted. However, philosophers seem oblivious to human nature and historical reality.
The German thinker Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) is the archetypical proponent of power concentration on the basis of mystical necessity.
In his book “Phenomenology of the Spirit,” written in 1807, Hegel introduced the concept of dialectical progression, where history evolves through contradiction, conflict, and resolution.
As a result, he regarded history as driven by ideas or a spirit that represents a higher reality; once again, we see the return to Plato’s mythical world of pure abstractions, which he imagined as drivers of human knowledge and action.
Just as Aristotle had predicted, Hegel’s views of an absolute spirit driving history led to power concentration in the hands of people who claim to represent the spirit; the outcome was once more an array of abuses and human rights violations.
Today more than ever, Aristotelian philosophy is crucial to keeping civilization alive. Don’t allow yourself to be fooled by pseudo-philosophers that overlook the evidence of history.
If you are interested in applying Aristotelian ideas to real-life situations, I recommend you my book “Rational living, rational working.”
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