Despite his extensive writings, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) produced a rather limited set of ideas. His philosophical system revolves around the theory of the will (“life force”) that he regarded as the prime mover of all living entities. Let’s pass review to Schopenhauer’s main ideas.
First and foremost, Schopenhauer rebelled against the ideas of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), and Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814). They dominated the mainstream philosophy at that time.
I find heartbreaking however that Schopenhauer achieved very little success in his lifetime. After death, Kant and Hegel continued to rule undisputed still for a century.
What’s the key difference between Schopenhauer and Kant? According to Kant, human beings cannot know things as they are in themselves because human intelligence is limited. In this way, Kant kept the door open for religious beliefs.
Schopenhauer’s rejection of idealism
Philosophy historians categorize Kant as “idealist” because he believed in the existence of some ideas that humans cannot grasp. The same categorization applies to Fichte and Hegel.
In contrast, Schopenhauer sustained that humans are able to grasp the true nature of reality through self-awareness. In “The world as will and representation” (1818), he acknowledged the influence of the will, but called readers to grow self-aware and adopt countermeasures (prudence, foresight, self-reliance…).
Similarly, Schopenhauer criticized Fichte’s belief in national spirits and Hegel’s belief in an absolute spirit. Those spirits do not exist in reality, countered Schopenhauer. He did not regard idealism as a sound philosophy.
Schopenhauer’s theory of the will
The theory of the will constitutes the key of Schopenhauer’s philosophy. In his book “On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason” (1808), Schopenhauer defended the thesis that all events can be traced to a cause, but in later works, he made an exception for the will.
According to Schopenhauer, the will is an eternal, irrational, wild force at the source of causation because it drives all living creatures to secure their survival and reproduction, and also to seek pleasure, irrespective of the costs and risks involved.
In his essay “On the will in nature” (1832), Schopenhauer defines the will as fundamental force underlying all motivation in living creatures, and all phenomena in general.
Humans can perceive and counteract the will if they become self-aware, argued Schopenhauer. There are no limitations that prevent the human mind from perceiving the will, but it takes substantial effort to become self-aware.
Schopenhauer determinedly opposed Kant’s arguments that certain ideas cannot be grasped, and that humans can only gain knowledge by employing reason. For Schopenhauer, intuition also plays a role in becoming aware of the will.
By introducing the theory of the will, Schopenhauer breaks up with philosophers such as Plato (429-347 BC), who had defended the existence of a parallel, abstract, intangible reality. Plato had called it “the world of forms.”
The theory of the will also breaks up with philosophers like Descartes (1596-1650), who had still placed God at the centre of the cosmos. Instead, Schopenhauer assigned the central role to the will, paving the way for existentialist thinkers such as Albert Camus (1913-1960) and Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980).
Schopenhauer’s views on ethics
As of 1815, Schopenhauer devoted vast efforts to studying Eastern philosophy, in particular Buddhism and Hinduism. He had also acquired extensive knowledge of Christianity through the courses he had attended at the University of Göttingen.
Schopenhauer’s moral ideas are shaped in part by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity. In “Two fundamental problems in ethics” (1841), Schopenhauer views empathy and compassion as major virtues because they render practitioners aware of the will and helps them make better decisions.
When humans allow the will to take control of their life, the results are going to be negative. The will is going to drive them to short-sighted choices and actions. Suffering ensues because the will does not care about costs, risks and consequences.
Empathy and compassion are crucial, argued Schopenhauer, precisely because of the suffering generated by the will. Those virtues render people aware of the human condition, prompting them to take action to reduce suffering.
Schopenhauer’s concentration on empathy and compassion is radically different from the morality put forward by Aristotle (384-322 BC) in his “Nicomachean Ethics.” For Aristotle, the main virtues include courage, integrity, self-discipline, honesty and reason. He viewed empathy and compassion as secondary.
Schopenhauer’s philosophy of aesthetics
Schopenhauer’s philosophy of aesthetics is connected to the theory of the will. He held artistic contemplation in high regard because it helps us escape the influence of the will.
Playing or listening to music, for example, enables people to break away temporarily from the relentless pressure exerted by the will. Artistic contemplation is a method that everybody can adopt to reduce anxiety and suffering.
In “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851), Schopenhauer gives an additional argument in favour of artistic contemplation. He says that music, theatre, literature, painting and other art forms can help us comprehend the underlying nature of reality.
I find this additional argument from Schopenhauer poorly reasoned, weak, and contradictory with his previous argument. If artistic contemplation can help us escape the influence of the will, how can it reveal the underlying nature of reality?
For what concerns human nature, Schopenhauer noted that, in the absence of self-awareness, humans are driven by the will to pursue endless desires. Since it’s impossible to fulfil them all with the existing resources, humans are destined to experience frustration and suffering.
Schopenhauer’s views on human nature
Historians of philosophy have categorized Schopenhauer as a pessimist although he did nothing but stating the obvious. He was correct in rejecting Hegel’s delusions of an absolute spirit as a driver of human history.
Schopenhauer considered it better to acknowledge problems than to lose oneself in fantasies. Instead of building philosophy on speculations, it is more productive to face one’s challenges.
Instead of ignoring the negative influence of the will and the limited human lifespan, Schopenhauer took them as facts. His realism led him to come up with solid recommendations to avert suffering and increase happiness.
In “Parerga and Paralipomena,” Schopenhauer gives readers practical advice, illustrated with examples, about how to grow self-aware, cultivate prudence and foresight, and increase one’s effectiveness. Such practical advice constitutes the very best of Schopenhauer’s philosophy.
If you are interested in putting rational philosophy into daily practice in any situation, I recommend you my book “Rational living, rational working.”
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