In his work “Rhetoric,” Aristotle (384-322 BC) presents the three principles of effective communication and persuasion. He names them “ethos,” “pathos,” and “logos.”
“Ethos” refers to the persuasive appeal of the speaker’s own personality. If a speaker possesses credibility, trustworthiness, and charisma, he can influence the audience more easily.
Aristotle called for speakers to cultivate their “ethos” day in and day out. A speaker can gain influence in his community if his actions demonstrate wisdom and virtue. A good reputation creates goodwill that will benefit the speaker whenever he calls his audience to action.
By “pathos”, Aristotle meant the appeal to the audience’s emotions. Salespersons and professional speakers know how to make compelling, memorable presentations. Their objective is to evoke emotions in their listeners, so that their decisions and actions go in a certain direction.
In contrast, “logos” focuses on cold logic. Aristotle advised speakers to employ arguments based on evidence, rationality, and experience. The more consistent an argument, the stronger its persuasiveness.
Practical applications of Aristotle’s theory of rhetoric
What are the applications of rhetoric? In Ancient Greece, it was employed in debates (deliberative rhetoric), in court cases (forensic rhetoric) and in ceremonies such as weddings, burials and prize awards (epideictic rhetoric).
Nowadays, teaching and commerce are the primary fields of application. Professors and salespersons must employ rhetoric each day in their presentations. Otherwise, students will fail to grasp lessons and customers will fail to place orders.
Aristotle also recommended speakers to engage a dialogue with their audience. Instead of presenting a complete argument based on logic (“logos”), you may want to present only its key premises and let the audience draw the conclusion.
When people draw their own conclusion, they will believe it more strongly than if they had heard it from the speaker. If you let them come up with the missing piece in an argument, they’ll end up persuading themselves.
Effective speakers combine the ethos, pathos, and logos in various percentages. While professors primarily employ the ethos and logos, salespersons will rely mostly on pathos; and attorneys, on logos.
Non-verbal aspects and Aristotle’s theory of rhetoric
In his “Rhetoric,” Aristotle was focusing on the spoken and written word. His focus on words is understandable because, in Ancient Greece, a speaker addressing a large audience would have little use for non-verbal communication.
If you are speaking to a thousand people in an amphitheatre, most of them will be barely able to see your facial expression. Your tone, what you say, and how loud you say it, will make a larger impression than your non-verbal communication.
Non-verbal aspects gain relevance in close-quarter debates, sales presentations and video transmissions that relay details to the audience. In those cases, it’s crucial that the speaker’s facial expression and body language are aligned with his message.
Cultural differences and Aristotle’s theory of rhetoric
In his work “Rhetoric,” Aristotle didn’t mention the cultural differences amongst audiences because all his students spoke Greek and belonged to the Greek civilization (Athens, Thrace, Crete, Athens, etc.).
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle did not need to worry about the differences between German, French, and Japanese audiences, but in our century, international speakers go to great lengths to familiarize themselves with the specificities of audiences. They want to avoid words and gestures that foreign audiences might find offensive.
Cicero, Quintilian, and Aristotle’s theory of rhetoric
The Roman senator Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC) was an expert on Aristotelian rhetoric. In his treatises “The Orator” and “On imagination,” Cicero provides examples of the three elements (ethos, pathos, and logos) identified by Aristotle.
Two generations later, Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (35-100 AD) wrote a “Handbook for Orators” that expands Aristotle’s teachings on rhetoric. Quintilianus (“Quintilian”) emphasized the use of metaphors and evocative words. Excerpts from his handbook have been used in schools until World War I.
Aquinas, Locke, Hume, and Aristotle’s theory of rhetoric
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) used Aristotle’s teachings on rhetoric for theological purposes. In his “Summa Theologiae,” Aquinas employs arguments based on ethos, pathos and logos to demonstrate God’s existence. His logical arguments (logos) rest on the Aristotelian concept of final cause and have exerted a vast influence on Catholic thinkers.
In the United Kingdom, John Locke (1632-1704) and David Hume (1711-1776) are also heavily influenced by Aristotelian traditions in the field of rhetoric. Locke’s call for clear, precise language corresponds to the Aristotelian concept of logos, and Hume’s discussions on emotions point to Aristotle’s concept of pathos.
Gorgias, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle’s theory of rhetoric
Not all rhetoricians conform to the Aristotelian tradition. In some cases, extensive efforts have been devoted to study Plato and his dialogue “Gorgias,” where Socrates attacks rhetoric as manipulative, and advocates for a genuine pursuit of truth.
In Plato’s dialogue, Gorgias is accused of giving priority to style over substance, and using rhetoric (persuasion) purely for material gain. I must point out that many of today’s teachers on sales, marketing and advertising adhere to Gorgias’ standpoint.
Theodor Adorno and Aristotle’s theory of rhetoric
Amongst recent philosophers, the German Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) had taken a stand against the use of rhetoric for manipulation purposes, particular through mass media. Adorno has given a new expression to Plato’s concern about the misuse of rhetoric in the public discourse.
Aristotle’s teachings on rhetoric carry an immense weight in business and legal matters. Irrespective of your profession, it is in your interest to familiarize yourself with Aristotle’s concepts of ethos, pathos and logos, and their practical applications.
If you are interested in applying Aristotelian philosophy to problem solving, I recommend you my book “Asymmetry: The shortcut to success when success seems impossible.”
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