Realistic individuals are naturally suspicious of propositions that look too good to be true. No wonder. Experience proves to all that there is no free lunch, and that we should better watch out when someone promises anything resembling a free lunch.
Seneca (4 BC-65 AD) did not make unrealistic promises. In his writings, he deployed vast efforts to remain sound, credible and down-to-earth. If he failed to achieve total philosophical accuracy, it is because of insufficient knowledge, not because of bad intentions.
Like Aristotle (384-322 BC) had done in his “Nicomachean Ethics,” Seneca concluded that our happiness greatly depends on our self-discipline. If we keep pushing in the right direction, chances are that we will achieve our goals.
Nevertheless, when it comes to self-discipline, there are two key differences between Aristotle’s ideas and those of Seneca. I admit the difficulty of detecting those differences in the short-term, but in the long term, they carry a determinant weight.
Seneca and the purpose of self-discipline
The first difference between Aristotle and Seneca revolves around the purpose of self-discipline. Why should we adopt the habits of constancy and consistency? What is the point of self- discipline in a world where many people have no qualms about their disorderly thoughts and actions?
Aristotle viewed self-discipline as a means to an end, not as an end in itself. His “Eudemian Ethics” portray the pursuit of a better life as a long-term undertaking. We can improve, but it is going to take time and effort.
Self-discipline, according to Aristotle, is an investment that should deliver benefits over time. If we pursue goals dictated by reason, self-discipline will draw us closer to those goals.
In Aristotle’s philosophy, “eudaimonia” or happiness remain the ultimate goal of human life. Self-discipline provides the bricks with which to build the house and the seeds we need to plant the garden.
Happiness will be derived from the finished house and the blossoming garden, but in the meantime, Aristotle doesn’t deny that self-discipline requires efforts and dedication.
In contrast, Seneca sees a present purpose of self-discipline. In his 83rd Letter to Lucilius,” he is recommending that we pass review every evening to the events of the day, asking ourselves if we have exercised sufficient self-discipline.
Seneca’s purpose is not to facilitate the attainment of long-term goals, but to avoid anxiety and pain in the present. There can be protracted benefits from practising self-discipline, but those are not Seneca’s primary concern.
Seneca and the benefits of self-discipline
In his dialogue “On the Shortness of Life,” Seneca conveys his scepticism about the long-term benefits of self-discipline and of anything else. Our lifespan is brief, he reminds us. The purpose of philosophy, he argues, is to deliver present benefits, especially peace of mind.
“Life is passing us by while we focus on the future,” Seneca affirms. For this reason, he is encouraging us to adopt thought and action patterns that deliver benefits today, without delay or interruption.
Seneca’s appreciation of self-discipline rests on his concept of happiness. He regards already as happy someone who is free of anxiety, worry and suffering.
His ideal of human happiness is neutral, inert. His praise for serenity could be formulated as a praise for indifference. Self-discipline, according to Seneca, provides a training ground for serenity because it renders us indifference to today’s events.
In his 28th Letter to Lucilius, Seneca explains his conception of self-discipline as training. If something bad happens, we can exercise self-discipline to “strengthen our character.” The gains in mental strength, he says, are similar to the gains in physical strength arising from hard labour.
Aristotle was recommending self-discipline to build a better life, little by little. Seneca just wants to build a stronger, wiser, tougher mind. He acknowledges the difficulty of the project, but in his 76th Letter to Lucilius, he encourages his readers to “keep practising for as long as we live.”
Seneca considered self-discipline as an essential contributor not only to happiness, but also to freedom. He was referring to inner freedom. The Stoic philosophers of the next generations, in particular Epictetus (55-135 AD) and Marcus Aurelius (121-180 CE) will retake this theme and develop it further.
Seneca’s concept of courage compared to Aristotle’s
What is the second difference between Aristotle and Seneca in the area of self-discipline? The levels of emphasis, intensity, and priority. While Seneca regarded self-discipline as a crucial virtue, Aristotle had placed it far behind courage.
In the 13th Letter to Lucilius, Seneca is advising us to “keep training our character to adapt to today’s circumstances.” There is no emphasis on pursuing one’s goals or achieving victory. It is a proclamation of self-discipline for the sake of serenity.
Seneca seldom uses the word “courage,” but when he does, he is distorting the meaning. His idea of a courageous person does not correspond to the Ancient Greek virtue of “andreia” or “virility.”
In the 13th Letter to Lucilius, Seneca defines “brave men” as those tested by adversity, that is, men rendered mentally strong through life’s challenges.
I want to underline that Seneca is categorizing those men as courageous because of their endurance, not because they have fought valiantly. Seneca’s concept of courage does not relate to the valour of Homer’s Achilles and Sophocles’ Antigone.
Aristotle had taken the opposite view. He placed courage far above other virtues because, without courage, they cannot gain any traction. His concept of self-improvement aims at tangible, visible rewards.
Similarly, Aristotelian aesthetic theory has no understanding for heroes who are mentally tough, but passive in the face of danger. Aristotle would have been puzzled by Seneca’s concept of courage as a pure psychological construction.
Our choice in this philosophical matter will shape our ideas and decisions today. I consider it crucial to choose our concept of courage carefully, because if we make the wrong choice, the benefits of our self-discipline might prove disappointing.
If you are interested in putting rational ideas into practice in all kind of circumstances, I recommend you my book “Against all odds: How to achieve great victories in desperate times.”