I am always amazed to see people devote vast energies to growing “more effective” without having a clear idea of their goals. How is one supposed to measure “effectiveness” if there is no avowed goal to pursue?

Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) was suspicious of vague promises in any area of life. He considered it self-evident that the first step is to define one’s goals, and that “effectiveness” is to be measured in relation to the achievement of that goal.

Objectives vary depending on the person, but one should regard them as valid as long as they are ethical; from the moral point of view, Montaigne didn’t see any fundamental difference between military leaders, artists, philosophers, merchants and farmers.

Each profession offers paths to virtue or vice, achievement or decay, greatness or demise. In his essay titled “On the most excellent men,” Montaigne analysed biographies of remarkable individuals and identified their shared character traits, namely, moral strength, ambition, resourcefulness, honesty and justice.

I view Montaigne’s reasoning as flawless in this respect, and I commend his conclusions to those seeking personal growth. I must first however define what Montaigne meant by “excellent men.”

Montaigne’s essay “On the most excellent men”

Montaigne’s definition is teleological and ethical, that is, he is praising individuals who have chosen ambitious objectives and pursue them assiduously, sometimes against all odds.

The term “teleological” is derived from the ancient Greek word “telos,” which means “objective.” Thus, Montaigne calls excellent those who have set themselves important objectives (“telos”) and deploy steady efforts to achieve them.

Montaigne equates the pursuit of important objectives with the pursuit of happiness. If we can achieve those objectives, he explains, great; and if not, we will have at least lived our life in an honourable, productive, enjoyable manner.

Happiness and personal growth are the underlying themes in Montaigne’s essay “On the most excellent men.” The lessons drawn from those biographies are meant to help us achieve a higher level of happiness.

Montaigne correctly perceives a causal connection between the practise of virtue, personal growth, and happiness. We are talking about three sequential steps in a ladder. The attainment of step three (happiness) rests on step two (personal growth), which rests on step one (the practice of virtue).

Justification of Montaigne’s concept of virtue

Why is it important to practise virtue? Montaigne takes his answer from Aristotle (384-322 BC). The key benefit of good habits (virtues) is that they will automatically drive us in the right direction, especially in times of crisis.

In contrast to Kant, Hegel or Nietzsche, Montaigne realized that virtues cannot be acquired overnight. Aristotle himself had identified the inculcation of virtues as the principal purpose of education.

Everybody is going to face some measure of adversity in life, but only virtuous people posses the capability to react fast and correctly to those challenges.

Their ingrained virtues (good habits) are going to supply the correct answer right away, that is, the answer that restates their rationality, honesty, justice, pro-activeness, steadiness, courage and ingenuity.

Montaigne had also realised that the sheer contemplation of virtue is a balm for the soul. Good individuals love to hear true stories about the triumph of virtue, justice, personal initiative, courage and honesty.

Benefits of Montaigne’s concept of virtue

Heroic stories constitute a moral test themselves, explained Montaigne. Good people feel inspired when listening to those stories. They feel motivated to pursue personal growth, success and happiness. In contrast, bad people feel envy, rancour and bitterness when listening to those stories.

From those heroic stories, Montaigne draws the conclusion that virtues are naturally interconnected. People who practise honesty tend to practise justice, steadiness and courage as well.

Conversely, individuals who behave dishonestly tend to be erratic, unreliable and unfaithful. Montaigne characterizes bad people as those who lack self-discipline or self-control. In his essays, he speaks about “lack of self-governance.”

Montaigne gives biographical examples drawn from ancient Greece and ancient Rome. For instance, he praises the Greek general Epaminondas (418-362 BC) and the Roman general Scipio Africanus (236-183 BC) for their self-discipline, which contrasts with the unrestrained cruelty typical of ancient wars.

He also praises Socrates (470-399 BC) for his intellectual achievements, Lycurgus (9th century BC) for his legislative talent, and Xenophon (430-354 BC) for his resourcefulness.

Which examples should we choose for personal growth? It depends on one’s personal goals. For a medical doctor, it may prove more appealing to study Socrates’ life than the military strategies of Hannibal (247-183 BC) or Themistocles (524-459 BC), but they all contain valuable lessons for personal growth.

My preference goes for multifaceted historical figures such as Pericles (495-429 BC) because their wisdom has universal application.

Montaigne’s crucial lesson is that virtue, that is, good habits, play a larger role than “effectiveness” in our personal growth and happiness. Thus, let us focus on acquiring good habits and keeping a steady course.

If you are interested in putting rational ideas into practice in all kind of situations, I recommend you my book “Thriving in difficult times.”