Ethical aspects are often underrated by individuals seeking personal growth. Psychology discussions tend to focus on pre-conceptions, personal history, and logical errors rather than on virtue. As a result, happiness is randomly defined, haphazardly pursued, and serendipitously achieved.
Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) held a different view. At an early age, he had discovered the strong connection existing between virtue and happiness, and when he started to write his essays, he gave priority to ethical considerations.
Virtue doesn’t require unnatural or suicidal behaviour, noted Montaigne. Once shouldn’t equate virtue with daily perfection in times of peace, and reckless bravery in times of war.
Montaigne viewed virtue as organic and natural, as the right behaviour that automatically emerges in society. When people interact or trade with each other, there are strong incentives to behave respectfully and honestly.
If we keep our word, we will gain a reputation of reliability and customers will prefer purchasing goods from us than from strangers. If we display politeness and friendliness, people will normally behave towards us in a similar way.
Influences on Montaigne’s concept of virtue
Montaigne had grasped perfectly that virtue rests on human intelligence, that is, on our ability to differentiate between bad and good habits, shun the former, and cultivate the latter.
Unfortunately, Montaigne failed to give enough thought to the concept of virtue. He failed to carefully identify and define rational virtues. Instead, he blindly adopted Aristotle’s concept of the “golden mean” and Seneca’s call for “moderation.”
I must however praise Montaigne’s scepticism towards the abstract ethical definitions given by Aristotle (384-322 BCE) in the “Nicomachean Ethics.”
When confronted with difficult ethical choices, Aristotle’s concept of the “golden mean” is worse than useless. When we are pressed to make quick decisions during a crisis, the call for moderation made by Seneca (4 BC-65 AD) can lead to disaster.
Montaigne recorded his reflections in his essay titled “On virtue.” In some English translations, this essay appears under the title “Of virtue” or “On ethics.” It supplies valuable insights on the link between virtue and happiness, but those insights are undermined by Christian and Stoic influences.
The Christian influence is visible in Montaigne’s occasional coupling of virtue and suffering. Although he argues rather inconsistently for the existence of such coupling, he should have realised that virtue is the direct opposite of suffering.
Contradictions in Montaigne’s concept of virtue
Montaigne knew enough of history to infer that real virtues (rationality, honesty, justice, ambition, self-confidence) favour human happiness. They help people succeed and thrive.
The idea that virtues are “difficult companions in a thorny, harsh path” is ludicrous at best. If we take this requirement at face value, it means that virtue is impossible without suffering, self-sacrifice, and possibly suicide.
Luckily, Montaigne was too much of an empiricist to lose himself in abstract speculations. When he looked for examples of virtue in history, he quickly discarded people who exposed themselves to danger and harm for no good reason.
Montaigne had very little regard for saints and hermits who mortify the flesh in their search of spiritual glory. Those people do not look happy and do not even pretend to be happy. What’s the point of imitating their behaviour?
Instead of mentioning suicidal mystics, Montaigne supplied rational examples. He wrote about people who had displayed rationality, ingenuity, ambition, honesty, justice, pro-activeness and steadiness.
Those people regarded virtue as a tool for achieving success and happiness. Their courage and persistence were a means to an end, not supernatural commands. Their goal was to improve their station in life, escape danger, and build a better future for themselves, not to fulfil an abstract ethical imperative.
Key lessons from Montaigne’s concept of virtue
In his choice of examples, Montaigne is refuting Immanuel Kant before his time. He is also letting go of the dire influence of Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD) and his penchant for silent, obstinate struggle.
I love to see Montaigne mention Xenophon (430-354 BC) and his heroic struggle to bring his troops back to Greece. I do not find in Xenophon any love for “a thorny, harsh path,” even if he had to walk such a path for a long time.
Montaigne rightly praises Xenophon for his drive, ingenuity and persistence. Those are major ethical virtues that we should include in our recipe for happiness. The same virtues apply to Themistocles (524-459 BC) and his energetic defence of Athens against invaders.
The lessons drawn from Montaigne’s essay “On virtue” are contradicting the Aristotelian doctrine of the “golden mean.” I am happy to see that, in practice, Montaigne ignored Aristotle’s disquisitions about the “golden mean” and adopted a natural, organic definition of virtue.
Montaigne put forward historical examples that demonstrate that we can never have enough honesty, justice, pro-activeness, steadiness, or ingenuity. We can never have enough happiness, or health, or longevity.
Those are goals to pursue joyfully and whole-heartedly, not with one hand tied behind our backs. Great historical figures such as Xenophon and Themistocles are showing the way. It is foolish not to pay attention to their message.
If you are interested in putting rational ideas into practice in all kind of situations, I recommend you my book “Against all odds: How to achieve great victories in desperate times.”